How Does a VPN Protect Me?

Hiding from prying eyes.

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A VPN can keep your online activity private, especially on open Wi-Fi, but it’s not magic. I’ll show you what a VPN hides and what it doesn’t, so you can decide if it belongs in your security toolkit.
VPN
(Image: canva.com)
Question: So there’s a lot of talk about using a VPN to hide what we do from our ISPs, and you’ve mentioned using it when using open WiFi. So just how and what are the protections of this versus just connecting through my ISP? What limitations does this have? Can they “see” what I’m doing (like using a BitTorrent), and that that activity is coming from my account?

A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, is one approach to connecting securely to a remote resource. Depending on the VPN, that privacy can extend from one end of the connection to the other or can protect you only for a certain portion.

I’ll describe the different scenarios, and how you are — and perhaps are not — protected by a VPN.

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Where’s My Disk Space Going?

How to find out.

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Running out of disk space can be frustrating, especially when you don’t know what’s eating it up. I'll show you how to track down the culprits with a free tool so you can see exactly where your space is going.
Full
(Image: canva.com)
Question: Our disk drive is split into a C: and a D: drive. We only ever save on the D: drive, but the C: drive has only about 540MB left available! Apart from about 5GB of photos, I can’t understand what is taking up all the memory disk space. The memory disk space seems to continually go down and is now getting to a critical level. I have run malware checks and deleted all critical errors, but still have not been able to free up any memory disk space. I can’t even defrag as I need 20% free to run this option.

(Why “memory disk space”? I’ll address that below.)

No matter how much we have, disks never seem to be large enough. As we collect pictures, videos, and programs (and the programs themselves collect data), more and more disk space is consumed. With so much happening on our computers these days, it’s difficult to understand what’s taking up the most space.

Fortunately, I can recommend a free tool that can give us some very helpful data.

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Can I Tell If Something’s Been Pasted Instead of Typed?

Not usually, but then again…

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Is pasted text the same as typed text? Usually yes, but not always. Hidden clues, formatting quirks, and even spyware can reveal the difference. Learn when copy/paste is truly invisible, when it’s not, and why it matters if you’re tempted to take shortcuts.
Hands Typing.
(Image: canva.com)
Question: If I have received a .rar file that contains many jpeg files, and I have to type it in Notepad, but I am doing copy-paste from the image in the Microsoft notes, and then copy from there and paste it into Notepad, and I save the document as .txt, can that be detected?

On the one hand, the answer seems obvious. (Spoiler: no.) However, there are possibilities we need to consider. (Spoiler: maybe.)

The devil, as they say, is in the copy/pasted details.

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Can Your Video Chat Be Intercepted and Recorded?

Yes, but…

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Your video chats are usually private and encrypted, but nothing is foolproof. The real risk isn’t hackers; it’s the person on the other end, who can record everything. Learn why interception is rare, where the real danger lies, and the one rule to follow if you’re unsure.
A video chat in progress.
(Image: canva.com)
Question: Hi, Leo. I had a private video chat with my girlfriend. I’m afraid that it could be recorded by someone and released on, say, a porn site. We used personal laptops. When I got a doubt, I scanned both systems with an anti-virus tool, and they’re clean. So, there’s not really a virus, but I’m still afraid that someone will record it for monitoring and all.

It’s impossible to prove that it can’t be (or wasn’t) recorded: you can’t prove a negative. Ultimately, if this is something that really concerns you, then don’t do that!

I don’t think there’s going to be a problem here. In practical terms — with one exception that most people don’t think about — it’s highly unlikely.

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Should I Just Use AI for Searching?

My answer may be controversial.

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AI or search engine? Both promise answers, but in very different ways. From accuracy and freshness to bias and even energy use, each has trade-offs you need to know. Before you pick one over the other, find out why the smartest choice might be both.
OpenAI and Google logos on a balance scale
(Image: askleo.com)

Google was once the go-to search engine for the internet. “Google it” even became a generic term for looking up something online. But there’s been a big shift to a different type of answer engine: AI chatbots like ChatGPT and others.

Let’s review the pros, the cons, the risks, and the impact of these choices.

First, we need to review the differences between the two.

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How Do I Remove Myself From a Computer?

It’s harder than you think.

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Leaving a job and worried about what’s on your work computer? From browser history to email accounts, traces of you remain. Learn what you can (and can’t) erase, and the smartest way to protect your privacy before you walk out the door.

Goodbye!

The scenario is this: you’re ending a long and successful relationship with your employer (or maybe a not-so-long or not-so-successful one).

At that workplace, it was acceptable to use your work computer to check your personal email, use an instant messaging client, check in on Facebook, and even surf the web for non-work-related things — all within reason, no doubt.

Now, on your way out the door, you’d like to make sure your personal account information isn’t left behind. Perhaps you’d like to clean up a few other traces of your activities as well.

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Can Malware Survive If I Reset My PC?

Reset is the ultimate malware removal. Or is it?

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Worried a reset won’t wipe out malware? While it’s technically possible for some infections to survive, it’s extremely rare. Learn where malware can hide, which reset options are safest, and the extra steps you can take to ensure a truly clean and secure Windows reinstall.
A cockroach surviving an explosion.
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: Can a virus survive Windows “Reset this PC” and “Remove everything”?

Technically, yes, certain types of malware can survive a reset.

Pragmatically, though, these types of malware are rare, especially if you take a couple of additional steps as you “remove everything”.

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Why Am I Getting Bounces for Email I Didn’t Send?

It’s a simple yet frustrating scenario.

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Spammers want to send email that looks like it’s coming from someone who can be trusted. They want it to look like it’s coming from you -- and you may end up getting the bounce notifications.
A bounce to something you never sent.
You can receive bounces from email you never sent. (Image: askleo.com)
Question: I keep getting a “cannot deliver email” message from someone I didn’t send anything to and don’t even have in my contacts list. Why is that, and what do I do?

What do you do? Nothing. There’s nothing you can do.

I’ve been seeing an uptick in this scenario recently, and it’s very frustrating, not just for individuals like you, but for those of us who manage mail servers as well.

Why is it happening? In a word: spammers. Let’s look at what they’re up to.

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Are Deleted Files also Deleted from Backups?

Nope, not usually.

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Here’s what really happens when you delete a file and how to make sure your backups protect you without bringing back things you don’t want.
Backup sign.
(Image: Adobe Stock photos)
Question: I back up to an external drive. When I later delete files from my C: drive, will those deletes be removed in future backups on the external drive? I don’t want to restore files I no longer want.

It depends on the specifics of how you back up. In general, though, once you back something up, it remains in the backup until the backup itself is deleted.

That’s important, as we’ll see shortly.

If you delete a file from your hard drive, the file is not present in future backups.

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What Is the “Normal” File Hierarchy in Windows?

To the extent that anything is normal…

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Ever wonder where Windows puts all your stuff? From drives to folders to files, the “normal” Windows hierarchy has a logic, though it’s often hidden by shortcuts and misbehaving programs. Here’s a look at how it works and how to keep your files organized.
Conceptual file / folder heirarchy.
(Image: askleo.com)
Question: What is the “normal” file hierarchy in Windows 10 or 11? I have Win 10 and have gone through a few hard drives, system crash/reboots, and multiple “User” files created by techs. I am trying to get things cleaned up and organized, but am having a difficult time knowing what is where and where they should be.

It’s surprisingly simple in concept. In practice, though, applications, including Windows itself, often conspire to make the file hierarchy confusing. That, in turn, can lead to a lot of lost, misplaced, or duplicate documents.

Let’s take a walk down the standard structure of files and folders that Windows assumes, encourages, and, in some cases, enforces.

But first, we need to make sure we understand some terminology.

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What Security Software Do You Recommend? (2025 Q3 update)

Basic protection in four steps.

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My updated guide cuts through the hype with four no-nonsense steps to keep your PC safe. Learn what works, what to avoid, and how to stay secure without overspending or overcomplicating.
Windows Security
Windows Security home tab. (Screenshot: askleo.com)

Question: What security software should I use? What anti-virus is best? How about a firewall? And what about spyware? Should I use one of the all-in-one packages that claim to do everything? Is there anything else I need?

I get these questions constantly. There’s a fair amount of churn and drama in the security industry; things change over time.

It’s time once again for my periodic update. Not a lot has changed in the last year, but there are some new things to consider.

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Why Does Email I Send Fail But a Reply Works?

The different places “To:” can come from.

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If sending an email bounces but replying works, the culprit is usually a wrong address hiding in plain sight. Learn how display names, typos, and auto-complete can fool you, and how to fix the problem so your messages get through every time.
Bouncing Email
(Image: askleo.com)
Question: I have a relative with a Hotmail address. If I send her a message, it comes back undeliverable. Yet if she sends me a message, I can click on Reply and it goes thru. What’s up?

You’re probably sending to the wrong email address.

I know, I know, you’re absolutely convinced you’re sending to the right one — but the bounce message would indicate otherwise. I’ve had it happen to me. I was absolutely convinced… until I saw my error.

Let’s look at why the two scenarios are different.

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Does Installing Lots of Programs Really Mess Up Your PC?

In theory, it shouldn’t, but we all know how theories go.

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Worried that too many apps will wreck your PC? Learn the real risks, how “software rot” happens, why portable apps aren’t always harmless, and why backups are your best defense.
Broken Binary Digits
(Image: depositphotos.com)
Question: I try to limit the number of programs I install on my system. I do this because I feel intuitively that the more programs I install, the more quickly Windows reaches that corrupted state that we all know too well, and has to be reinstalled from scratch. I really could make good use of quite a number of programs I don’t have installed, but I worry about hastening corruption. I do assume that I can load as many portable applications as I like without worry. Am I on the right track? Or is my thinking just incorrect?

In theory, installing lots of different programs shouldn’t destabilize the system regardless of how they’re installed.

Reality says otherwise.

The real answer is, it depends more on the specific software than on how you install it.

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How to Safely Change Two-factor Authentication

A little planning is called for.

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Changing two-factor authentication apps isn’t hard, but doing it incorrectly can lock you out of your accounts. Here’s a safe step-by-step approach to make the switch smoothly, protect your access, and keep your accounts secure.
two smartphones each displaying a two-factor app and code, with a floating arrow pointing from one smartphone to the other
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: I’d love to hear your feedback about how to correctly move to a different 2FA app (on a mobile device). I’ve read that removing a 2FA account from an Authenticator app can cause issues, potentially locking you out of your account. If I wanted to move my 2FA codes/accounts to a different authenticator app, what is the recommended way to do this?

Safety, or more specifically not getting locked out of your account, is a common concern when it comes to switching your two-factor authentication app or technique.

Sometimes you can move an app-based 2FA from one app to another, but a) it’s not terribly common, and b) not everyone uses this type of two-factor app. When using SMS or other forms of two-factor authentication, there’s no secret key or anything to share even if you could.

The good news is that my approach is conceptually simple and works with all forms of two-factor authentication.

You just need a little preparation.

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How to Transfer Your Email From a PST to Thunderbird for Free

No additional tools required.

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Switching from Outlook (classic) to Thunderbird? You don’t need to buy tools. With a little time and a free email account, you can move your messages yourself. I’ll walk you through the steps to transfer your email safely and reliably.
Email flysing from Outlook to Thunderbird
(Image: askleo.com)
Question: Must I buy a PST-to-MBOX converter to get moved over to Thunderbird?

This is a question I get from time to time from people who use Outlook (classic)1 (aka the big, powerful, Outlook email desktop client included with Microsoft Office/365/CoPilot) and are looking to switch to a different email program to run on their PCs. Typically, they’re moving to Thunderbird, but there are, of course, many options.

Getting your email from one to the other? Well, that takes a little effort.

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Can’t I Just Copy Everything to Back Up?

Kinda, sorta, maybe… no.

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Just copying your entire drive is not a safe backup, Learn why a real backup program is safer, faster, and more reliable when disaster strikes.
Backup 74% Complete
(Image: canva.com)
Question: For security in case of a crash, can I just copy everything — like my entire C: drive — to an external drive as a backup rather than using a backup program? At the present time, I am just copying My Documents to a flash drive, but am concerned that to recover, I would have to rebuild all the files and updates if I had a crash.

Sure. You can do that; just copy everything. It provides a level of protection, and it’s way better than doing nothing at all.

But your safety net has some big holes in it.

The problem is you can’t really “copy everything”. You’ll miss some things that a traditional backup program would catch — things you’ll care about when the worst happens.

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No Extension? No Problem: How to Identify Almost Any File Type

Let’s get a little geeky.

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Got a mystery file with no extension or an ambiguous one? You may be able to uncover what it is by checking its signature. I’ll show you how to peek inside with a free tool and match the clues to known formats.
Identifying the first two bytes in a file using HxD.
Identifying the first two bytes in a file using HxD. (Screenshot: askleo.com)
Question: I downloaded a few video files without extensions. I tried inserting all of the common extensions, but none of them would play. Is there a way to determine which format the files are in?

For video files, my gut answer is to say, “I don’t know”. Video file formats are a complex maze of twisty passages.

But we can get a few clues — not only about your video files, but about other types of files as well.

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Why Doesn’t Someone Simplify Computers For Seniors?

Why I’m not holding my breath.

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Tired of feeling left behind by today’s tech? It’s not your fault. I'll look at why computers aren’t getting any simpler, what basic devices exist, and how the right attitude and support can make all the difference.
A frustrated older gentleman throwing a laptop to the ground
We’ve all been here. (Image: ChatGPT)
Question: Bottom line here is that someone needs to simplify today’s computer operations for seniors, whose goals are likely quite different than younger and institutional users. Surely someone can come up with a “Jitterbug” laptop!?

I have good news, and I have bad news.

The good news is that you are absolutely right. Seniors — or, since it’s not really an age thing, those with different priorities than the more technologically inclined — are underserved. I totally agree.

The bad news is that it’s extremely unlikely to change.

But I do have a couple of options to share.

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Should I Still Avoid Standard Folders If I’m Not Using OneDrive?

It’s a matter of trust.

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Even if you avoid OneDrive, using standard Windows folders might not be as safe as you think. Microsoft’s been known to make changes you didn’t ask for. I’ll explain why I don’t trust those folders or Microsoft, and what I do instead to keep my stuff organized and safe.
a Split image: one side is a chaotic closet stuffed with apps and files labeled “Documents,” “Pictures,” etc.; the other side shows clean, labeled shelves with folders like "Mystuff\Documents", “MyStuff\Photos,” in a bright, well-lit room.
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: Since I have set up [Windows 11] and am using a Local User account, and refuse to have anything to do with OneDrive, can I still use the default document folders (Downloads/Documents/Pictures/Music/Videos) for storing and saving, or should I unpin them and add new folders?

I advise against using the standard Windows folders.

I have a couple of reasons for doing so. One is just a matter of how I like my data organized, and the other boils down to trust… or lack of it.

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How to Save or Recover Your BitLocker Recovery Key

It could mean the difference between recovering your data or losing it forever.

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BitLocker could be running on your PC without your knowledge. Without the recovery key, you risk losing everything. I'll show you three ways to check, find, and save your key.
Bitlocker Logo
(Image: askleo.com)

In some pre-configured Windows Pro or Home editions, BitLocker may encrypt the system drive without your knowledge.

Unfortunately, when encryption is on by default, you’re not prompted to save the recovery key. You need to find it and save it before you need it.

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Are There Hidden Files that Save Every Keystroke I’ve Ever Typed?

No. But of course, nothing is that simple.

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Worried your computer is secretly saving everything you type? It’s not. While there are hidden files and places keystrokes can live temporarily, there’s no master file of your entire typing history (unless malware is involved). Learn what’s real, what’s myth, and how to truly erase your data.
Typing on a Laptop
(Image: adobestock.com)
Question: This is a multi-part question and pertains to computer forensics — specifically, locating those mysterious, deeply hidden files that (supposedly) contain your computer’s entire history — every keystroke ever made. Accessing those files. Viewing the contents. Deleting the contents. Understanding how a utility like DBAN can “find” and nuke them, but I, as the computer owner, can’t. And finally, if every keystroke has been recorded to some hidden file, how come it doesn’t wipe out available space on my hard drive?

This is a relatively persistent family of questions that come around from time to time, particularly in times of concern about individual privacy.

These questions exhibit several misconceptions.

However, those misconceptions are based on kernels of truth. I can’t just say, “That’s wrong”; instead, it’s more a case of “It’s not like that, it’s like this.”

Let’s see if I can clear up the confusion. To do so, we need to talk about keystrokes, loggers, hidden files, erasing files, and really erasing files.

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Prepare to Lose Your Phone

Maybe it’ll never happen — but prepare as if it will.

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Your phone holds the keys to your digital life. If it’s lost or stolen, things can get messy fast. I'll show you simple steps like locking, tracking, and backing up that protect your data and give you peace of mind before the worst happens.
somone on a crowded street having their mobile phone stolen from their pocket by a pickpocket
(Image: ChatGPT)

As more and more of our digital life moves online, much of it ends up in our pockets in our mobile phones or smartphones.

And while hacking and malware make the headlines, the biggest risk is something much more mundane: losing your phone or having it stolen.

Let’s prepare for that.

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Why Do We Suddenly Need AI?

We don’t. But don’t be too quick to dismiss it.

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AI might feel sudden and overwhelming, but it’s not the first fast-moving, world-changing technology we’ve faced. I'll compare AI to the rise of the automobile and explore why understanding and engaging with AI, rather than dismissing it, is probably the smartest move we can make.
a split-screen image: on one side, a 1920's era scene of a crowd of angry people shaking their fists at a Model T automobile, on the other side a modern scene of a crowd of angry people facing a humanoid looking robot shaking their fists at it
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: For decades, most people have known AI stands for Artificial Intelligence. That’s plain and simple. I am asking about the modern AI that is suddenly a worldwide phenomenon, attracting hundreds of billions of dollars of investments in huge multi-acre AI centers with thousands of employees and huge electrical power requirements that almost demand a dedicated nuclear reactor. Why does the world suddenly need all of this?

You may not like the approach I’m going to take. I’m going to draw a comparison.

Hear me out, as I start by rewriting your question.

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Do I Need a Spare Computer?

Maybe. Maybe not.

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I'll help you decide if having a spare computer makes sense, what your backup options are, and how to prepare without spending more than you need to. Peace of mind might be easier than you think.
a laptop computer inside a wall-mount fire extinguisher container behind glass with the words "in case of emergency break glass" stenciled over the glass
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: Should an old man who lives alone and is pretty much housebound have a backup computer? Old people tend to feel insecure and like having redundancy. Everybody is tied to the Internet these days, for Uber cars, online banking, Amazon shopping, license renewals, tax payments, etc. What if one’s computer fails? Please comment and advise.

There’s no single answer to this other than my old standard: “It depends.”  Smile

There are two things to consider: the alternatives you might already have and the impact of not having a computer.

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Is It OK to Reuse Passwords on “Unimportant” Sites?

No, but we all do it.

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Reusing passwords on sites you don’t care about might feel harmless, but it still can open the door to bigger problems. I’ll look at why even “unimportant” accounts matter more than you think, the risks of cutting corners, and simple ways to stay safe.
Chalkboard on which is written "Password: password123"
(Image: canva.com)
Question: Does this/my attitude below expose me in ways I’m not aware of? I’d NEVER reuse a password for financial, shopping, insurance, social media, email, or government sites! BUT I reuse a few easily memorable ones for subscriptions to Web media comment sections. I do this only because sites annoyingly request re-entering a password periodically, and I don’t want to interrupt my flow to look them up. On those sites, I don’t care if someone hacks in—and no one would even bother!

I will question some of your assumptions, but I’ll also admit that yeah, I do it too. And it’s not great.

We all have gazillions (technical term, that) of accounts we need to manage. It can be a pain to manage all the associated passwords.

It might be OK, in some situations… but even then, it comes with risks.

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Is Copyright Still an Issue If Something’s Not Available Anywhere?

Yes. Availability has nothing to do with it.

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Just because something’s old or unavailable doesn’t mean you can make copies of it. I'll explain why copyright still matters, how technology complicates things, and what you need to know before making that backup or download. It’s simpler and more important than you might think, even if you don't like the answer.
Copyright?
(Image: askleo.com)
Question: I want to be able to copy some old VHS tapes to DVD via my PC. Your site answers all the questions except one, as 99% of my VHS tapes have copyright restrictions. Is there a device I can obtain that will allow me to copy these tapes? As most of these movies are now ‘out of production’ and unobtainable, I do not see copyright as an issue.

Before I dive in, I need to be super clear: I’m not a lawyer. Never have been, and don’t plan on becoming one. This is not legal advice; use it at your own risk, no animals were harmed, some objects may appear smaller, your mileage may vary, and so on and so on.

That being said, I have a clear opinion which I believe to be relatively accurate.

The bottom line: copyright is most definitely an issue.

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