What Are Those Numbers Labeled MD5, SHA, Etc., Listed With Downloads?

They’re about safety.

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Wonder what those strange strings of numbers labelled things like MD5 or SHA mean next to a download? They’re a way to double-check that a file is safe and complete. Here’s how checksums work, why they matter, and when you might want to use them.
Checksums for Hiren's Boot CD.
Checksums for Hiren’s Boot CD. (Screenshot: askleo.com)

When you go to a download website to download a large file, you might see a series of numbers displayed alongside the download link. These are commonly referred to as checksums or hashes and allow you to confirm that the download completed successfully.

The example above for Hiren’s Boot CD PE shows a link for what some would consider a fairly large download: over three gigabytes. (If you’re curious, Hiren’s Boot CD provides diagnostic and recovery tools that run from a bootable CD, DVD, or USB drive.) We’ll use it as an example as we look at why checksums exist and how to use them.

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Command Prompt? Power Shell? Terminal? What’s the Difference? Which Do I Want?

The evolution of command-line interfaces.

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Ever right-click the Start button and wonder why you sometimes see Command Prompt, other times PowerShell, or maybe something called Terminal? They look similar, but each has its own role.
Right-click the Start button, and you may see any one of these. (Image: askleo.com)

There’s a very good chance you’ll never need a command-line interface in Windows. However, on occasion, particularly when diagnosing or tweaking your system, there are certain things that are more easily done using one. In rare cases, a command-line interface might be the only way to accomplish some obscure tasks.

Depending on your setup, you might see one of three separate options in the alternate (right-click) Start menu:

  • Command Prompt
  • Windows PowerShell
  • Terminal

They’re all command-line interfaces, but of course, they’re different. Sort of.

Let’s examine what they are, what you can control, and which you might want to use.

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How What I Do Is Threatened by AI

I’m not alone.

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AI is rewriting the rules of the web, and sites like Ask Leo! are feeling the squeeze of fewer clicks, more bots, and uncertain futures. What does that mean for the content you rely on? I'll look at the challenge, the irony, the fear, and what you can do to help.
A human writer under a spotlight as an AI robot arm reaches for his work.
(Image: ChatGPT)

I have a love/hate relationship with AI. Hate might be too strong a word — let’s just say I have concerns. And some of those concerns relate to whether sites like Ask Leo! will survive.

AI is an existential threat. Maybe someday for humanity, I don’t know; what I do know is that the threat is real and current for websites you probably rely on for content… like answers to your technical questions.

We’re losing our reason to exist.

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Replying to Spammers to Tell Them to Stop

Don’t do it.

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Tempted to hit "reply" and tell spammers to knock it off? Don’t. Here’s why replying makes things worse, and what you can do to keep spam under control.
A garbage can overflowing with spam.
(Image: dollarphotoclub.com)
Question: Can I set up an automatic email reply to all the [BULK…] emails I get telling them that such are not being received at my email address? Would it be advisable to do so? I get few if any that inform or provide any useful info. Or perhaps I need to ask, “What is the best way to deal with [Bulk…] emails other than one by one?”

I assume that by “BULK” you mean unsolicited email, more commonly called spam: email you never signed up for and don’t want.

Never, ever reply to spam. Period. It won’t help and will more likely make things worse.

I won’t show you how to set up an automated reply because it’s the wrong thing to do. Period.

Instead, let me explain why replying to spam — automated or manually — is a really, really bad idea.

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Can I Back Up Files to a Separate Partition on the Same Hard Disk?

You can. Don’t.

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Thinking of backing up your files to another partition on the same hard drive? Learn how this puts your data at risk and discover smarter, safer ways to back up before disaster strikes.

Hard Disk

Question: I am going to do a clean install of Windows to hopefully fix some errors, which means that I need to back up my files. The problem is that I don’t quite have the means to back up my hard drive. Can I create a new, separate partition on my existing drive (1TB), copy my files to that, and then perform a clean install on the existing Windows partition? Afterward, I would transfer the files back and delete the “backup” partition. Would that work, or am I heading in the wrong direction?

It would work, but, yes, it’s the wrong direction.

There are risks. And from what I can see, you’re running a huge risk before you even begin.

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How Do Websites Store Passwords Securely?

The good, the bad, and the really bad.

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Not all websites protect your password the same way. Some do it well, others badly, and a few dangerously poorly. I’ll walk through the good, the bad, and the ugly of password storage, and share one simple step you can take to keep your accounts safe.
Password dial set to "password"
(Image: adobestock.com)
Question: After reading your excellent article, “How Can a Hacker Try All Possible Passwords If Systems Block the Login Attempts?” I still don’t understand. Even if a hacker has stolen the user database of logins and hashes, how can they duplicate the method of hash creation used by any particular website? I would think different websites would use different hash-creation formulas.

You would think. And they should. That’s what makes it so frustrating when these attacks are successful.

The problem is that security is sometimes an afterthought. In fact, it’s often not thought of in any deep sense until after a successful attack.

The good news is that there’s something simple you can do about it.

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Still Another Way to Install Windows 11 With Only a Local Account

I call it the “local account two-step”.

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Want Windows 11 without tying it to a Microsoft account? There’s still a way. I’ll walk you through a simple but slow two-step trick. The result: a fresh Windows 11 setup with only a local account... at least until Microsoft closes the door again.
an individual about to step on a two-step step stool where the first step is labeled "Windows 10", and the next is labelled "Windows 11"
(Image: ChatGPT)

Microsoft has removed various workarounds discovered to allow Windows 11 to be installed without using a Microsoft account. Their recent justification claimed a change was to “avoid missing important parts of the setup process”.

Important for whom?

The technique I’m about to describe is simple but time-consuming. So far, my results show it works… for now. The resulting installation of Windows 11 Home has only a local account.

The process starts a little further back than you might imagine.

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How Often Should I Reset My PC?

There’s no schedule.

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Is your PC slowing down, acting odd, or just feeling old? A full reset might be the fix, but how often should you do it? I’ll share when it makes sense, when it doesn’t, and how to decide if your computer needs a fresh start.
A Reset Button
(Image: depositphotos.com)

Resetting your PC involves backing everything up, reinstalling Windows and applications from scratch, and restoring your data from the backup or elsewhere.

In years past, I advised doing a reset fairly regularly. Recommending an annual reset wasn’t uncommon for active users, including me.

These days, a reset isn’t as necessary as it once was. I’ll review why and when we would want to reset Windows.

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What Are the Internet’s Rules About Free Speech?

Probably not what you think they are.

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When people find their posts or comments removed or altered from websites they visit, sometimes they claim that their right to free speech has been violated. That's rarely the case.
Microphone
(Image: canva.com)
Question: Can you advise me on the “rules” of the internet regarding free speech? I’ve had my comments on some sites and posts deleted by the owner. Doesn’t that violate my right to free speech?

No, it doesn’t.

Free speech is an interesting concept in general, especially in today’s turbulent times. Take it to the internet, and things get even more “interesting”.

Yes, there are rules and even laws, but it’s complex.

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Can the Owner of an Open WiFi Hotspot See What Files I’m Downloading?

If they’re techie enough, maybe.

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Internet cafe owners can monitor the activity on open WiFi hotspots. Whether or not they take the time to do it is another story!
Downloading
(Image: canva.com)
Question: Just wondering if others can see what I’m downloading, say in a coffee shop or some other public place, like the administrator there? Or can they just tell that something is being downloaded? It’s a local place, so I assume they have some local provider like Comcast. I imagine it takes up their bandwidth, and they don’t like that because it makes the connection slow for others in the establishment. Please let me know.

When you’re using someone else’s WiFi — or even their wired connection — they’re providing you with internet service.

They’ve become your internet service provider, or ISP.

And ISPs are special.

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Are VPNs Safe for Online Banking?

Safe? Sure. Safer? Probably not much.

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Think a VPN makes online banking safer? Banking is already protected by strong encryption, but a VPN adds a twist. I’ll explain what’s really protected, what isn’t, and where the real risks lie when you bank on the go.
VPN
(Image: canva.com)
Question: Is it safe for me to use a VPN for online banking while I’m on the road?

Online banking these days is relatively safe to begin with. HTTPS connections, for example, mean your conversation with the bank is encrypted between your computer and the bank’s servers, regardless of whether or not you use a VPN.

There are a couple of things that a VPN kinda/sorta makes slightly safer.

Let’s examine the differences.

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USB Charging and Cables Explained: Safe and Simple

At worst, slower than it could be, but that’s fixable too.

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With USB-A and USB-C, things have gotten simpler, but not always obvious. I’ll walk you through what cables really do, how devices and chargers “talk,” and why missing charger blocks isn't a big deal.
Several USB charging bricks plugged into a power strip.
(Image: canva.com)
Question: So many devices come with only the charging cable and not the actual charger (plug/block) itself, which has the label on it stating what voltage & amperage ratings it has. I have yet to find charging cables that come with such labeling on them. So how do you know what that particular charging cable is capable of — or are they all universal charging cables whether or not they come with the plug?

USB standardization has made all of this much simpler.

For the most part, if the cables fit, your device will charge safely. Slowly, perhaps, but safely. There are exceptions, but when talking about portable devices, it’s rare.

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Why Am I Being Labeled a Spammer?

You might be collateral damage in the war against spam.

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Possibly being labeled a spammer is another reason not to forward political and other emails. Do it enough, and your normal email may not get delivered.
Spam Bin
(Image: canva.com)

As I write this, thousands of people have my email address. It’s right there on the “From:” line of every newsletter I send.

Naturally, some of them forward me jokes, political messages, hoaxes, or urban legends. I know they mean well and do so with the best of intentions.

But I mark them all as spam. It seems harsh, but I feel I have to.

Because that’s exactly what they are.

Even if I don’t, others may, and because of that, there’s a very important lesson here in making sure that the rest of your email keeps getting delivered.

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Do I Need to Make a New Rescue Disc Every Time My Backup Software Updates?

Not really.

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Worried you need a new rescue disc every time your backup program updates? Relax. I’ll explain when it matters, why it usually doesn’t, and how you can get one at the last minute.
someone on a boat throwing a life ring to a desktop PC floating in the water
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: Hi Leo, I’ve been using the Macrium Reflect program to back up my Windows computer. However, I’m finding that when I try to do an image or a clone backup, I’m prompted each time to update the software. This requires making a new rescue disc, which can be fairly time-consuming as I’m using Macrium Reflect to back up my desktop PC and my laptop, too. I’m concerned that if I don’t make a rescue disc each time the software asks me to update (which is every time I open it), my backups won’t work and I’ll be “you know what” out of luck! Can you advise?

You don’t need to make the rescue media every time you back up.

You don’t even need to make new rescue media each time Reflect updates itself.

Heck, you may not even need to make rescue media at all until you need it.

There are times it’s appropriate to make a new one, but even then, it’s not a disaster if you don’t.

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How to Recover Deleted Data from Your Disk — Maybe

Resurrecting old files.

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Think those old files on your hard drive are gone forever? Maybe not. I’ll walk you through what affects your chances of recovery, the tools you can try, and why sometimes, it all comes down to luck.
A glowing external hard drive sits on a desk, with beams of light shining out as if it holds hidden treasure.
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: Is it possible to recover data that was deleted a year ago from an external hard drive?

This is another question that earns my most common answers: “Maybe” and “It depends”.

As long as a few conditions are met, it may be possible to recover old data from a hard drive. I’ll review what those are and recover some files from a drive I formatted.

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How Do I Fix the Master Boot Record (MBR)?

There are a couple of different ways.

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If your computer refuses to start, the problem might be the Master Boot Record (MBR). Fixing it isn’t as scary as it sounds. I’ll show you how to use Windows’ built-in Startup Repair and a couple of handy command-line tools to get your machine running again.
Startup Repair
(Screenshot: askleo.com)
Question: Can you tell me how to fix the MBR?

The MBR, or Master Boot Record, is the first sector of MBR-configured hard disks. (GPT-configured hard disks have something similar, but I’ll be referring to MBR unless the difference matters.) In either case, it tells the BIOS or UEFI where on the hard disk to locate the software to be loaded when you boot the computer.

Without an MBR, or with a damaged MBR, your machine won’t boot (power up and load the operating system).

There’s a lot more to booting than just the MBR. Fortunately, recent versions of Windows have made the distinction between these various pieces fairly transparent, referring to all of them as “Windows Startup”.

I’m not sure what led you to ask about fixing the MBR, but repairing Windows Startup will address MBR problems as well as others.

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I Opened Something I Shouldn’t Have — Now What?

If it’s malware, it’s not good.

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Accidentally run or opened something suspicious? We've all done it. I’ll walk you through the options from scans to resets, and consider what to learn from the experience.
A laptop glowing with a big red exclamation mark on the screen, while a worried person hovers nearby, coffee cup in hand.
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: I have a question. I recently downloaded a wrong file after being redirected. I even allowed the .exe to run the cmd (I didn’t see it type anything in it before closing, though) after allowing the threat in Windows Security. I did a full scan afterwards, and it said everything was fine. Should I still be worried and consider a factory reset?

Worried? Probably.

This is exactly the scenario security folks warn against so strenuously: running or opening something you shouldn’t and bypassing warnings from your security software.

Let’s look at your options.

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Windows Security to 2028? Why ESU Still Costs Extra

Two different things, two different dates, and two different costs.

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Wondering why Microsoft charges for Extended Security Updates when Windows Defender will get updates through 2028? They're not the same. I'll explain the difference between malware database updates and actual Windows fixes, and what you really need to know to stay protected on Windows 10.
Split view showing Defender updates through 2028 and ESU updates through 2026.
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: If Windows still has “security” until 2028, why is there a fee for Extended Security?

There’s no shortage of confusion around Windows 10’s end-of-support date. This question has been asked a few times: What’s the deal with paying for ESU until 2026 if Windows Security will continue to be updated through 2028?

It’s an apples-and-oranges kind of comparison. Even though they have similar names, they’re two different things.

Let me explain.

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How Do I Encrypt a Disk?

Encrypt the whole thing.

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Worried about your data if your computer goes missing? Whole-disk encryption can keep prying eyes out. I’ll show you simple, practical ways to encrypt your entire drive so your information stays safe even if your computer doesn’t.
Hard disk chained and locked.
(Image: canva.com)

Whole-disk encryption is an important aspect of security for many people. If you encrypt a disk properly and your computer falls into the wrong hands, those hands won’t be able to access your data.

The average computer user may or may not need to use whole-disk encryption; it depends on the type of data they store and their level of concern. However, encryption is an important tool for business and government users, particularly for portable computers such as laptops and tablets.

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Is Syncing Passkeys Across Devices Safe?

As safe as syncing passwords.

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Passkeys promise more security and less hassle, but is syncing them across devices safe? Learn how password managers handle passkeys and what happens if a device is stolen.
One key, multiple devices.
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: If one passkey is synced across multiple devices, what happens if one (like a laptop) is stolen?

Passwords are easy. We understand what it takes to make them more (or less) secure. Passkeys are a little harder to understand, partly because they depend more on behind-the-scenes security measures we don’t see.

Fortunately, the benefits and risks of sharing passkeys across multiple devices via a password manager are almost identical to doing the same with passwords.

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Public or Private? Picking and Changing the Windows Network Setting

Learn which you want when.

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Not sure if your Windows network should be public or private, or even what that means? I’ll show you what each means, when to use them, and the simple steps to switch.
a computer screen showing a balance scale which has the word "Public" on one side and "Private" on the other
(Image: Gemini)

One of the most confusing aspects of Windows networking is the concept of private and public networks. When you set up a network (typically when installing Windows or the first time you make a connection on a new network adapter), Windows makes an assumption about which you want.

Sometimes that assumption is wrong.

Depending on what you do later, Windows may offer to change it. Or not.

I’ll review what these network types mean and how to switch from one to the other.

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Can I Tell If Email I Sent Has Been Read by the Recipient?

Not with 100% certainty.

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People want to know if someone’s opened their email. I’ll explain why features and tools claiming to do that can't work most of the time. I'll share the only way to know for certain your message was read.
A man dropping an email into a black hole.
(Image: ChatGPT)
Question: I sent an email to a friend, and he claims never to have gotten it. I don’t believe him; things he’s said led me to believe that he did get it and that he did read it. Is there a way I can tell for sure?

I’m amazed at the number of questions I get that boil down to people not trusting each other. Not that there isn’t cause, I suppose, with spam, phishing, and malware running all over the place. But this seems like the simplest case of all: was your email read or not?

The answer to your question is no, there is no way to tell for sure that your email was delivered, opened, or read. You might as well have dropped it into a black hole.

I always get a lot of pushback on that.

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Why Is the Same File a Different Size in Different Places?

There’s size, and then there’s size.

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Ever notice that the same file can show up as different sizes depending on where you look? It’s not a mistake; it’s how disks and online services handle storage. I’ll explain why your files can look bigger or smaller, what clusters have to do with it, and why it’s nothing to worry about.
A one byte file displayed in Command Prompt
A one-byte file shown in Command Prompt. (Screenshot: askleo.com)
Question: When backing up online, my pictures only take up ~65 GB, but ~88 GB are reported on my computer. Why?

This is something that’s confused computer users for many years: the same file can show as taking up a different amount of space depending on where you look and the characteristics of different disk drives.

Copy that file online and things get even more confusing.

This is not something to worry about. Fortunately, no matter where it’s stored or how much space it’s reported to be taking up, your file is still your file.

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